Under pressure: How human?wild?captive elephant social?ecological system in Laos is teetering due to global forces and sociocultural changes

A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. Various conceptual approaches have been developed to understand and analyse processes transition or transformation in society (Patterson et al., 2017). Among them, social-ecological systems (SESs) are complex integrated which humans part nature (Berkes & Folke, 1998). SESs dynamic, changes occur across multiple scales time, space organizational levels (Gunderson Holling, 2002; Liu 2015). In addition, people their environment interact reciprocally form feedback loops (Liu 2007). context, there is a need study how periods gradual change with abrupt changes, human groups able adapt even transform into new development pathways face dynamic (Folke, 2016). While adaptation refers capacity social actors learn, combine experience knowledge adjust behaviour pertain SES fundamental structure functions, contrast larger intentional that creates fundamentally different system when ecological, economic structures make existing unsustainable Adaptation intimately linked SES; at one level may lead another (Pelling Manuel-Navarrete, 2011). growing number empirical studies described transition. Early work on regime shifts focused ecological components (Armitage 2012). Further identified external drivers impact response communities, including climate change, political (Forbes 2009; Ramprasad 2020; Zanotti 2020). However, few considered effect cultural increasingly common through globalization world-wide development, agency individuals communities traditions activities. For example, co-management initiatives, women local communities' empowerment advocated foster internal maintain sustainable healthy (Eriksson 2021; Fedele 2017; Reid 2014). Local practices also support adaptive transformative changing forces (Apgar 2015; Senos 2006). individual level, centre pulled away by dynamics towards other livelihoods either less difficult, more culturally appropriate remunerative (Ramprasad White, status emerging intergenerational erosion interest artisanal fishing led an ageing population fishers difficulties recruit young ones (Tam 2018). rapidly world both natural sides, urgent better document affect community facing combination powerful forces. we use case human-captive wild elephant relationship Laos shed light ongoing occurring particular under illustrative wider situation prevailing world-wide. The human–Asian akin because dual being care, entanglement cultural, symbolic, social, economic, emotional inter-subjective dimensions. Elephants trained used for least 4,000 years as war animals, mounts kings draught animals transport forestry (Trautmann, capture elephants supplement captive has maintained demographic genetic links between these two populations until 1970s (Sukumar, These persist date, particularly reproduction females males (Maurer plummeting Asian global concern. From point view, viability threatened habitat reduction, poaching capture, increasing conflicts low birth rates (Choudhury 2008). humanities long-lasting affected many among others major recently range countries, loss traditional knowledge, working practice, raising like welfare conservation organizations (Locke Buckingham, approach provides novel relevant framework analysing human-wild-captive Laos. Indeed, closely interlinked landscape. disciplinary roots ecology, but broadened inclusion sciences Therefore, suited occurred over past decades. Through study, aim provide description influence drivers, from liberalization land policies. We strive had relationship, leading fading generation family heritage. believe our prevalent faced due globalized changes. focus specifically describing perceptions Lao owners mahouts who heart human-captive-wild relation using anthropological based semi-structured interviews. Acknowledging prominence historical intimate dimensions relationships, insight, systemic linking system. To do so, first describe prevailed 20–30 ago, was principles access resources control spirits. Some materials collected during allow us highlight importance values symbolism species. Secondly, enquire how, since opening country market economy, rise dominance commodification partitioning SES. Thirdly, impacts handling four-dimensions model (a) specific modes production (b) taskscape sense Ingold (1974, 2000), (c) following Stépanoff's (2017) categorization (d) Finally, discuss such liberalization, well policies, impacted clarity, define section several concepts theories mobilized throughout analysis discussion. introduce some key SES: neoliberalism, management Then present supporting concepts, inspired pastoralism, offer comparative categorizations build human–elephant Harvey (2005) defined neoliberalism theory political-economic proposes well-being best advanced liberating entrepreneurial skills institutional characterized strong property rights, markets trade. Neoliberalization includes expansion valuation spheres were formerly unaffected commerce protected forests ecosystem services (Gómez-Baggethun Ruiz-Pérez, 2011; Robertson, Assigning prices commodities allowing trading called (Liverman, 2004; Concomitantly, government policies promote partitioning, regulation privatization previously managed commons (Ingold, 1980). landscape-dividing tend often exclude people, generating misunderstandings, oppositions needs (Brockington Igoe, 2006; Chan 2007; Infield institutions, information brokers (NGOs, media, researchers) ultimately (Campbell, 2005; Cumming, 2016; Linnell Beginning late 1980s, governments south-east Asia international institutions undertook line (Nevins Peluso, Changes land-use patterns, deforestation biodiversity main tropical ecosystems (Fisher Lambin Meyfroidt, Since conversion agriculture pasture replaced degraded grasslands (Gibbs 2010). Recent demonstrated large mammals retaining native agricultural (Ferreira 2018; Galán-Acedo 2019). Depending configuration matrix (agroforestry, polyculture monoculture), human-modified landscapes functional diversity wildlife foraging, dispersal Using example arctic reindeer herders, (1974) emphasized relationships relations herds pastures, governing animals. landscape arises alongside what (2000) taskscape, entire ensemble tasks done environment, where constitutive acts dwelling. include technical activities mutual interlocking. concept encompasses (TEK). TEK place-based rooted cultures generally associated long-settled ties environments (Antweiler, 1998; Orlove 2010; Sillitoe, According Berkes (2008), understanding managing communities. resource set practices, tools techniques. attitudes, beliefs conventions behaviour. Based human–reindeer system, conditions driving hunting economy pastoralism ranching. Ingold's hunting, ranching economies production. mode exclusive right disposal owner his progeny. increase animal stock reproduction, intend accumulate monetary capital. research shows conventional protective domination drive, protect feed livestock should indeed according autonomy, five ranging seasonal freedom captivity (Stépanoff Because constitute return, perpetually construction 2000). mountainous located Indochinese peninsula. Of its total population, 83% live rural areas densities (Ducourtieux 2005). revolution 1975, People's Democratic Republic, Laos, ruled Revolutionary Party. With end Soviet aid after 1990, changed radically liberalization. Within years, turned assistance, structural reforms financial gradually opened up foreign capital tourists (Evrard Pholséma, 1997). Land reform, precisely individualization rights systematic zoning mapping forests, became precondition intensification Concurrently, forest cover declined 70% 1940s 41.5% 2005, acceleration 1990s (Robichaud 2009). direct agriculture—both farmers agribusinesses—and industrial tree plantations hydropower, mining infrastructure projects (Lestrelin, Ramcilovic-Suominen Kotilainen, Shifting cultivation selective logging blamed International NGO degrading scholars dispute claim (Castella 2013; Lestrelin, Access investors, referred ‘land grabbing’, neoliberal extraterritorial governance driven agrarian (Baird Barney, Schoenberger agro-plantations, reduction shifting dwellings elephants. historically known Lan Xang, ‘Land million elephants’, shelters high interactions language, (Xang ban) literally ‘village elephants’ ‘ban’ means village home. paper, choose adopt emic interpretations reflect cognitive linguistic categories natives, opposed etic researcher purposes (Harris, 1976). terminology instead ‘domestic ‘captive biology. Wild ‘Xang pa’ ‘pa’ forest. same word interpretation illustrated opposition muang (district city) pa (forest), dialectical rather than strict dichotomy domestic, civilized settlements wild, untamed (Singh, place backwardness lacks order, source desired resources. muang–pa dialectic interlinks worlds emphasizing process domestication muang. perception forest, elephants, shaped species, caretakers, ‘mahouts’. Up 20th century, sheltered sharing habitat, 850 respectively (Santiapillai, 1993). 2010, numbers 600 800 individuals, living mostly isolated fragmented (Khounboline, Village privately owned Most belong Sayaboury province (Maurer, Ownership shared 3.6 average, usually (Suter 2013). Time-sharing most arrangement co-owners. Both duties profits agreement During 1990s, time country's opening, families handled herd (up 10) Owners charge caring elephant. cases, mahout. minority employed did not perform husbandry tasks. ‘mahout’ employees own long-term (15 years) author mahouts’ completed 2015 5 weeks ethnographic survey interviews explore owners' mahouts' (4) future mahoutship (see interview guide Table S1). Additional questions topics addressed course discussion points interests respondent's willingness talk about subject. Questions adapted, respondents elephant, officials, monks, retired training masters. subtopics lack misunderstanding, reluctance respondent answer. This method chosen broad answers issues little possible investigator (Huntington, Interviews typically lasted 30 min conducted field, next elephant's resting place. Sampling stratified firstly district residence, it appears author's show spatial variation. 52 province, he interviewed 13 Thongmixay district, 11 Paklay Phieng, Hongsa nine Ngeun (Figure 1). He six Pathoumphone southern Champassak. hosts 20 hundred century. sampling potential variation answers. prioritized mahouts, they predominant making strategic decisions regarding (40), (eight), officials (two) Ministry Agriculture Forestry national monk elephant-keeping tradition. male activity, only female co-owns her brothers. Respondents various ethnic origins (Taï Lao, Taï Dam, Leu, Khamou Hmong). language author, recorded Zoom H1 handy recorder, fully translated French English. absence ethics committee incharge Montpellier University all methods carried out accordance legal requirements guidelines surveys protocols National Centre Scientific Research (CNRS) (Baude All informants provided informed verbal consent before participating interview. Only name asked. Answers anonymized analyses. Human–elephant principles—a period expressed interviewer phrases as: ‘in nineties’, ‘some ago’ ‘when your father grandfather activity’, depending age respondent. heritage moladok khopkwa). They released lived small village. cultivated fodder foraged bush surrounding Mahouts visited them once month. completely (poy), partially restricted hobbles (catyae) front legs chain (sow) dragged. choice restraint depended animal's distance crops. Males ‘naughty’ restrained avoid escape, attacks crop raiding. Such extensive fallow lands available could browse freely sustain themselves. occasional domestic raised no cost thanks free-ranging abilities conspecifics, cross-mating males. close very much alive species long history tradition coexistence distinguish (forest) pa) (village) conspecifics ban), 71% (sanît: kind, sort related animals). Interestingly, further currently occur, When asked differences were, noticed 24 referring physical attributes clear consensus, head and/or ear bigger smaller. Otherwise, (wild humans, work, scars, etc.) 19 concerned behavioural attack run presence humans). ancient times An born caught. fled […] remained three months bred So, captured brought back them. know (#44, Hongsa) popular cosmogony illustrates dualist view world, sent companions, wilderness afterwards fugitives. More specifically, stories illustrate paths (ban) (pa). Elephant conceive ‘village’ ‘wild’ immutable status. answers, indicated become training, exception big aggressive cannot easily tamed. Seven added needed spirits one. calf hasn't taught yet doesn't us. It still belongs forest… wild. (phi those ban). If shaman hit hard enough scare away, dies. Once taken care spirits, it's okay, (# 35, After taming, seeks protection house heuan) owner's (Lainé, 2018a). transient path reversible. confirmed cases returning Decades meet ones. uncommon escape follow congeners, especially gestating females. latest never retrieved ago. eight respondents, escaped forget whereas remember language. Two came back. ownership transmitted mother therefore prerequisite eventually question perpetuating masters engaged perpetual attempt harness prosperity Singh (2012). analysis, owners, cohabitation, shared, 2). last decades seen socio-economic factors. neoliberalization. induced shift foundational paradigm strongly detailed hereafter 3). There lot timber quotas you quickly earn money. That's why I bought besides there's expenses [to handle elephant]. (#27, Paklay) Six sold full member investment. Thereupon, priced basis variations supply demand industry export disrupted practices. beasts burden full-time industry. Their workload slightly increased recent decrease instituted government, left jobless. Thirteen decreased 2 study. now variety tasks, opportunities year (Table Right my China. hired man take visit every months. Hongsa, together. (#41, breeding gestation calves weaned compatible intensive workload. selling weaning earning alternative income 3-year decades, preferred incomes generated resulting drastic population. constant conclude profitable breed Thus, seven declared purpose calf. survey, met pregnant females, Nam Pouy Park districts. dislike prefer sell (and calves) districts, northern (Hongsa Ngeun) perpetuate finding mates. commitments ask expensive stud fees. payment fees, extended elepha